Sexuality in Mainstream Hindi Cinema Films as medi Essays - Culture

Sexuality in Mainstream Hindi Cinema Films as medium of Mass Communication Film communication may be considered as a social process whereby a transmitted signal is received primarily through visual receptors (and, often, sound receptors) and is then treated as a message from which content or meaning is inferred. Film, as a symbolic form, is a process of communication that employs film, the medium, with its technology of optics, emulsions, and cameras, to produce a piece of celluloid with a variable-density silver nitrate surface. It is man who creates film communication. This definition suggests that a piece of film, in and of itself, is meaningless-that meaning exists only in a special social and cognitive relationship between a filmmaker and a viewer. This relationship occurs when a viewer chooses to treat a film not as mere signals triggering perceptual awareness and biological responses, but as message units that have been put together intentionally and from which meaning may be inferred. Cinema is perhaps the mainstream of all art forms, most popular and most accessible, especially in India, a country which produces most number of films in a year compared to any other country (barring Hollywood, perhaps), and a country where we have a large base of cinema-going public. Cinema, more than any other art, has the power to influence people. Therefore, it is very important to understand how the country, its people and its aspirations are represented in the cinema produced in the country. Cinema as a medium of mass communication can be seen at different levels, serving different purposes. It can be an art form, an entertainment, a social document or a social critique. Cinema can be all of these and at the same time be a means to something else - a mirror unto our lives, showing us exactly how we function as society. Mainstream Vs Alternative Cinema Mainstream films can best be defined as commercial films that are made by major entertainment s tudios or companies that are owned by international media conglomerates. Because of better financing, these films can afford more expensive actors, wide releases or limited releases, and are sold at popular retail stores. This has become known as the studio system. Films made by major studios or companies that are not owned by a media conglomerate but are distributed by a company owned by a media conglomerate are also considered to be mainstream and are often referred to as mainstream independent films. As a mainstream medium (cinema needs money to be produced. Therefore, it must appeal to the mainstream audience, who will pay at the box office) cinema must, first and foremost, appeal to the mainstream audience. The definition of mainstream varies from society to society, from culture to culture. Broadly, it means representing the prevalent attitudes, values, and practices of a society or group, for example, mainstream morality. A cultural construct, when applied to art, mainstream may mean something that is available to the general public, or something that has ties to corporate or commercial entities. Sexuality in Hindi mainstream films refers to the presentation in motion pictures of sexuality or eroticism and sex acts, including love scenes. Erotic scenes have been presented in films since the silent era of cinematography. Many actors and actresses have exposed at least parts of their bodies or dressed and behaved in ways considered sexually provocative by contemporary standards at some point in their careers. Some films containing sex scenes have been criticized by religious groups or banned by Govt. or both. Sexuality in cinema has been presented in many genres of film; while in some genres sexuality is rarely depicted. Sex in films can be distinguished to a pornographic film and also from nudity in film, nudity can be presented in a sexualized context, for example nudity in naturalism would normally be regarded as non-sexual. In India, the entertainment industry is an important part of modern India and is expressive of Indian society in general. Historically Indian films have lacked the frank depiction of sex; until recently, even kissing scenes were considered taboo. On the other hand rape scenes or showing sexual assault were depicted openly. Currently some Indian states show soft core sexual scenes and nudity in films, while

What do Christian teachings tell us about the Sanctity of Life Essays

What do Christian teachings tell us about the Sanctity of Life Essays What do Christian teachings tell us about the Sanctity of Life Essay What do Christian teachings tell us about the Sanctity of Life Essay Essay Topic: Left To Tell Life Is Beautiful The sanctity of life describes what Christians believe about the life God created for them. The sanctity of life basically means that life itself is a gift, and that gift is from God, therefore only God can take it away. The word sanctity means purity and that life is holy and special. Christians believe that life is the ultimate gift that can be given to humans on Earth, they treat it with the utmost respect and it is treasured.The sixth commandment itself states that you shall not murder, this is in the book of Exodus (chapter 20 verse 13) and to seize another persons life is a sin against God. In the first chapter in the first book of the Bible it says that God created everything and so out of respect we should not harm our fellow humans. God made man in his own image (Genesis1: 27)In thinking that life is precious Christians treat each other equally and fairly, without judgement, believing that all people are made in Gods image. Therefore, if we are made in Gods image then we are precious ourselves, meaning that we are not to waste life or damage life. Do unto others what you would like them to do unto you, and also Love your neighbours as you love yourself. (Mark12: 31)Christians understand that everyone is valuable in Gods eyes; the sanctity of life helps them to make important decisions in life and death circumstances such as euthanasia.Christians opinion on euthanasia is supported by the sanctity of life. Some aspects of the sanctity of life are that life is God given and should not be destroyed. All human life is precious whether they have a disability or an unusual ability, all life is worthy of respect from others. God has a plan for every individual persons life, however small and insignificant people often feel.Dont you know that you yourselves are Gods temple and that Gods Spirit lives in you? If anyone destroys Gods temple, God will destroy him; for Gods temple is sacred, and you are that temple. (1 Corinthians 3:16-17)In Corinthians it means tha t every persons body is a temple that belongs to God, your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit. If you harm yourself in any way on purpose you are harming God too. If you destroy yourself God will destroy you.Life is sacred because it is created by God for a purpose, and that purpose comes to an end when you die. Its not for you to choose the moment at which to die.(Malcolm Muggeridge, journalist and social commentator).If a human is surviving only by being connected to a life support machine, is it morally right to end that persons life. What might be a Christian response to this?Christians believe that life should not be held on to or prolonged. It is morally right if there is not any chance of that person being able to breathe without a life support machine, if God wants them to survive he will help them to breathe when the life support machine is turned off.In 1976 22-year-old Karen Ann Quinlan took a drug overdose, which left her in a PVS (Persistent Vegetative State). Finally after years of legal battles, Karens life support machine was turned off to allow her to die peacefully, but she surprisingly continued to breathe without the machine and stayed alive for several years.PVS patients are living human beings, they possess the in eliminable worth and dignity of our common humanity PVS patients are entitled to the ordinary care to which any impaired and vulnerable person is normally entitled. (Luke Gormally, the Linacre Centre)PVS is often not diagnosed very precisely; there is not much to distinguish if some one is in a deep coma of in a state of persistent vegetation. There are many patients who recover from being a PVS; if their life support machine was turned off they may not survive.Although it is unnatural to keep a person alive for an extensive amount of time, in the US, Nancy Kruzans parents made numerous appeals to remove Nancys support machine, it took them over seven years before they were allowed to do so. Nancy was in a PVS for a lengthened amount of time, in Christianity this is immoral.The Methodist church made a statement in 1974, involving euthanasia, they believe that even though a patient is dying they still require the same treatment as the non-dying, they are still people even though they may be able to speak or move like humans.The argument for euthanasia will be answered if better methods of caring for the dying are developed. Medical skill in terminal care must be improved before death, loneliness must be relieved, patient and family must be supported by the statutory services and by the community. The whole of the patients needs, including the spiritual, must be met.The Roman Catholic Church is against any form of suicide, whether its having an overdose of tablets or excluding treatment. The Church disagree with every intentional action to deliberately cause death is abusing Gods laws. Although they believe that you must only provide painkilling drugs to relieve pain and not a form of death, they feel that life should be maintained at all costs. Members of the Roman Catholic Church as Christians believe that it is Gods place and no one elses to take life.Its not only religious group and the medical profession but also the government agree that doctors should not use exceptional measures to extend life of terminally ill.Man does not have the right to end his own or anothers life for the sake of avoiding possible suffering. We are stewards of our physical life, and God alone can determine when the power to take life shall be given to man.(Dr Hew Morgan, GP and Christian).No one can keep himself from dying or put off the day of his death.'(Ecclesiastes 8: 8)By turning off a life support machine, you are playing Gods part; if a humans life is depending on the support from that machine to stay alive you are preventing that person from living. Although keeping someone plugged into a life support machine for an extended amount of time is also acting as God.If a machine has been living for a person for an extensive degree of time there is a pretty good chance that the person is dead, and has been dead for some time. If this were so, their soul would have already left the body and would be in Heaven or Hell depending on their activities in their life.When a person has been connected to a life support machine for a long period of time has a huge affect on the friends and family. This situation is more distressing as the person is neither dead nor alive, there is no body to bury but there is a person to mourn.For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under heaven: a time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up what is planted. (Ecclesiastes 3: 1-4)There are many different Christian views on euthanasia, although generally people do not know if their view on the matter would change if they had to deal with the implications of the situation until they themselves were put in that position.Why is it we are prepared to put anima ls out of their misery but not humans?Do you agree with this statement, give reasons to your answers and refer to Christian viewpoints.In the Bible there isnt even one verse, which portrays animals as equal to humans. God created both beautifully, with a great deal of care and attention, although humans are the only ones who actually have a relationship with God, who can ask him for help and guidance, for protection and thanks. The very first chapter of the Bible states that human are created in Gods image.The majority of humans are meat eaters, this meat comes from animals not humans, there isnt lines of people waiting to be slaughtered, farmers breed animals for this soul purpose, these animals lead incredibly awful lives and dont occupy the voices to complain.Animals can often become aggressive and consequently this may develop into a dangerous situation. Its cruel to lock up an animal because they dont have the capacity to understand what they have done wrong and why they are be ing punished. The only way to resolve the problem of mad animals is to put them down, whether this is fair or not its the best solution in the present world. Animals cannot defend themselves the way humans can, it is impossible for an animal to stand up in court and defend its rights.People look at murder as the ultimate crime in todays world, if you commit a murder even manslaughter you are looking at life imprisonment, therefore you should go to prison if you turn a persons life support machine off, as it is thought of as murder by many people.I have never seen any nobility in a patients thrashing around all night in a sweat -soaked bed, trying to escape from the pain that torments him day and night to my mind when the terminally ill patient has reached this stage, the best medical treatment is death.(Dr Christiaan Barnard, heart-transplant surgeon).If an animals life ever became this horrific, humans would put them down long before. Animals cannot be comforted to the extent we ca n, their mind do not have the complexity humans obtain.Then God said, Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.God blessed them and said to them, Be fruitful and increase in numbers; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground. (Genesis 1:26-28)I believe that humans are created in Gods image and animals arent, consequently you cannot compare the two. Animal are not the same as Humans, they do not have the same level of intelligence. They dont know right from wrong and they do not have a conscience, therefore people are much more important than animals.

English Legal Skills and System Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

English Legal Skills and System - Coursework Example The flats were substantially completed. This implies that this was less than completion. This means that none of the eight flats was completed and, therefore, no further payment was due. 5. To dismiss the subsidiary argument by the defendant’s counsel, Glidewell LJ applies the authority in relation to a case of Hoenig v. Isaacs [1952] 2 All E.R. 176. In this case, the complainant’s work was to decorate and furnish the defendant’s house for 750 pounds payable as work proceeded and balanced on completion. Plaintiff received 400 pounds and the defendant moved into the house on bases that there were some defects. Some defects were found however, the work was substantially completed. The court ruled that the plaintiff was eligible to be paid the outstanding balance minus the cost of making defected goods or omissions. 6. Russell LJ agrees with the Glidewell LJ’s dismissal of the subsidiary argument since it relates to the defendant’s submission that the complainant deserved the  £10,300 because of the eight houses none had been completed. He agrees with the judge’s findings that there has been the considerable completion and a small amount should be deducted to cover for incomplete and defective items. 7. For the benefit of law to his client, the defendant’s lawyer to support his position argues the complainant was promising to do more than what the subcontract specifies. That is to continue with carpentry work and do it within the stipulated time. He applies the authority based on the principle of law which dates back to a decision made in Stilk v. Myrick. 8. a) According to Glidewell LJ, the doctrine of promissory estoppel cannot be relied upon because the doctrine provides a scenario where a person to a whom a promise is made can seek additional payments for services which he is bound to offer under the existing contract or by promise. He states

Gender Issues and Cultural Constructs in Sex and the City Essay

Gender Issues and Cultural Constructs in Sex and the City - Essay Example Just like women are defined by patriarchal culture, men are also defined by culture, and this culture is also patriarchal. Because of this, there is inevitably a dichotomy between the terms â€Å"female,† which is biological, and â€Å"woman,† which is cultural. Similarly, there is a difference between â€Å"male,† which is biological, and â€Å"man,† which is cultural (Bartky, 2003). Both of the movies Sex and the City and Sex and the City 2 demonstrate how this is true. That said, each of the movies actually turn the traditional cultural definitions of men and women on their head, for the most part, in that the women in these movies are independent and assume the masculine role in different ways. Meanwhile, the men, who definitely take a backseat in these movies, much as they do in the television series, often take the traditional female role in many ways. This is not to say that the portrayals of the men and women are not culturally driven, as women in modern culture often do take on masculine qualities and men take on feminine qualities. Nonetheless, in the Sex and the City world, with the one notable exception, turns traditional culture, as opposed to modern culture, on its head. Analysis of the movies The best way to explain how these movies turn traditional culture on their head would be easiest if one examines the different couples who are in these shows. Carrie Bradshaw is the focus of both of these movies, as she is in the actual television series upon which these movies are based. Bradshaw is a blend of masculine and feminine qualities, although the masculine qualities in Bradshaw outweigh the feminine qualities, as dictated by culture. Carrie is a writer, and is successful, having published several books. This would be a typical masculine characteristic – Carrie is a breadwinner, and she has zero interest in anything domesticated. She doesn't cook, she is never seen cleaning, and she has no interest in having child ren. On the other hand, Carrie's boyfriend, turned husband, Mr. Big, takes on some of the more traditionally feminine characteristics, at least in the second film. Mr. Big does cook, as he is seen cooking in the first film, and makes an anniversary dinner for himself and Carrie in the second film. Mr. Big also likes old-fashioned movies, especially It Happened One Night, which is a classic romantic comedy. In the first film, Mr. Big takes on more traditional masculinity however, than in the second film. This is because Mr. Big is seen as Carrie's caretaker, more than in the first movie. He literally buys her a super-expensive penthouse apartment, and constructs her dream closet. He is also responsible, in the first film, for the dramatic tension in the film, as he stands Carrie up at the altar (they later marry). This feeds into the stereotypical male who is afraid of commitment. He dictates how the two will be married – he wants a low-key ceremony, she wants an over-the-top ceremony, and the two end up getting married according to what he wants. Therefore, Mr. Big is a protector of Carrie, is a provider for Carrie, and dominates Carrie with his wishes in the first film. He more of a traditional male in this way. By the second film, however, Mr. Big is neutered and takes on more of a feminine image. This is the film where he forces Carrie to watch the female-centric film, It Happened One Night, and Mr. Big is shown as somebody who is more of a homebody.

Qualifications & Selection Process for Judges in Illinois & Florida Essay

Qualifications & Selection Process for Judges in Illinois & Florida - Essay Example The candidate should also have a record of good behavior and integrity as well as capable of communicating both in spoken and written English. On condition that an individual does not meet the above named qualifications then it means that he or she is not eligible to vie for any judiciary position in the state of Illinois (Sara, 2005). The judiciary of Illinois consists of the supreme, appellate, and circuit courts. The judges are first elected through partisan elections where they are capable of serving ten year terms but on condition that there exist a vacancy on the court; then a supreme court appointment is necessary. The other serving justices have the role of electing the chief justice of the court where he serves for three years only. As for the appellate courts in Illinois, the conditions are similar in exception of the condition that the chief justice is only supposed to serve for one year term. The chief justice in circuit courts serves an indefinite term but the judges can serve a six year term (Charles & Maule, 2003). Judges in Illinois can be dismissed from work through an inquiry from the judicial board after complains are launched by the commission of the court. After a hearing, the commission has the authority to suspend or completely dismiss a judge from tenure if he or she is found to have acted in a substandard manner. Alternatively, judges can also be dismissed from work through a majority vote from the House of Representatives as well as a majority of two thirds of the senate vote (Sara, 2005). In Florida, the judicial system consists of four levels and in our case study we are going to limit our research on the first level; the level of a County Court Judge. To qualify for the position of a County Court Judge in Florida, an individual must have been a member of the Florida Bar for a period of not less than five years in addition to the fact that he or she must be a member of the county he or she is vying for to serve even

Resistance to Change in Public Sector Culture

Resistance to Change in Public Sector Culture CHAPTER 1 Background / General Organisation cannot control environmental changes. They can only change their processes to adapt to the environmental changes and take advantage of the new opportunities that are the changes in the environment brings. When a change is resist is could be a very difficult to achieve the desired reason for the wanted change. This is the case of IFAKO /IJAYE local Government Council Area (IJLGCA) where the management are finding it difficult to change the bureaucratic organisational culture among the employees of the local government council .The introduction of the PACE PROJECT that was aimed at changing the organisational culture was meet by resistance from the employees of the councils area .The PACE PROJECT was program is designed to re-engineer the human and material resources of the organisation in other to enhance and improve their performance and productivity. Ifako/ijaye Local Government council area (IJLGCA), the organization has experienced rapid changes in the last six years to improve the efficiency of the operations as well as the capability of the workforce to produce the desired results which would make the sector to be more effective and efficient in operations. Project PACE, was also purpose is to repositioning ifako/ijaye Local Government council area (IJLGCA) in to world-class organization, by clearly defining the vision for the organization and comparing to reach me that the other Council area created at the same time in Nigeria and elsewhere in the world by operating in compliance with the International Labour Standards by entrenching transparency in the organisational processes enhancing efficiency and making improvements in the value of procurement in the local governance Change management can be defined as a decision-making procedure which modifies or transforms organisation to be more effective and efficient in operations. Organisations need to change to adapt to external or internal development, but realizing effective change could be very problematic .change is so difficult and when it occur successfully it is by miracle. Kanter, stein, and jick (1992) One major barrier to change is resistance from employees of organisations .Resistance is commonly considered is a natural reaction to organisational change. IFAKO /IJAYE local Government Council Area (IJLGCA) government is still using a bureaucratic cultural administration style. The top to bottom approach of culture change in selling the preferred culture to staff has used different presentation styles, such as seminars and workshops, which are unable to change the mind-set of workers, but rather creating a form of resistance from employees who are afraid of losing their job a top to bottom approach with limited room for dialogue In this paper I will be studying the two the approach to change which are (1) Determinism Approach (2) voluntarism approach. The different classical models of change that is the Lewins model to change which would include the Lweins force field analysis to determine the driving forces and the resisting force to the desire preferred organisational culture that is the pace project of ifako/ijaye Local Government council area (IJLGCA). Research Problem Management efforts to refocus IJGCA staff to meet with challenges in the public sector through the PACE project, is yet to produce the desired results since its establishment in July 2004. The various launching, enlightenment campaigns and appointment of the local change-makers / teams are yet to provide the required support for the PACE project.   Project PACE, whose purpose is to reposition IJLGCA into a world-class organization by clearly defining the vision for the organization .Also comparing the achievement with other the Council areas of Nigeria and other part of the world, that were created at the same time by making IJGCA a pacesetter for others to follow is still yet to yield to require result. The Code name Project-Pace, said that it would be a comprehensive, multi-functional and coherent strategy in line with the task of setting up a high level of organization, but now the plan change is still remain at the elementary stage. Staff awareness and understanding of the brand-new part of culture, which was launched in 2005 is still very low. The desired commitment on the path of staff is lacking due to poor understanding of the preferred culture elements which is ACT NOW which elements are: Safety, Performance, Empowerment And Entrepreneurship, Respect And Trust, Innovation, Ownership And Consequence Management ,Teamwork Control And Open Communication, Professionalism. The Recently concluded roll out of the performance management system (PMS) under the PACE project had encountered some resistance, which was largely behavioural and attitudinal employee gives the management a major concern. Employee does not want to loss their power and jobs. Their belief is that this new change will take a lot of them. This research project is set out to address the level of awareness and perception of staff and also recommend new ways of implementing the preferred culture successfully. The Major Research Question à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ What are the reasons for resistance to change and the lack of adoption of the PACE PROJECT, new culture? Minor Research Questions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ What is the level of awareness of the preferred PACE PROJECT CULTURAL and acceptance amongst staff? à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To what extent is the organization culture a resisting factor? Objective of the study The research objectives are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢To suggest how to create awareness of the PACE project among staff members. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Suggest ways of carrying staff along in the of culture change process à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Suggest how to encourage the acceptance of the PACE project à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Implement a new culture based on the PACE Methodology The study will focuses on junior, senior management staff of the IJGCA which is one the seven hundred and seventy (770)local government councils areas in Nigeria and will be a Qualitative study of reason for resistance to change. Our exploratory study would be using force field framework. Force field analysis is a model that help us to understand the force and against change in individuals and organisations. Force Field Analysis is a useful technique for investigation, all the forces against the decision. Force filed model used in weighing the pros and cons in an organisation .for the purposes of this study force field analysis would be used to demonstrate the level of resistance of staff to PACE PROJECT. APPROACH Analytical and Descriptive Data gathering methods were adopted: open ended Questionnaire Secondary data review and the writers personal observations and discover reasons for resistance. LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY The study has several limitations are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The study is limited to IJGCA. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The size of the sample of staff investigated may limit the generality of the results. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Based on one cultural -change initiative à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Time constraints. ASSUMPTIONS That PACE project is capable of implementation That the PACE project is helpful Beneficiaries: This research will benefit the following groups: 1. Employees of ifako/ijaye Local Government council area (IJGCA) 2. ifako/ijaye Local Government council area (IJGCA) 3. Lagos state Government 4. Policy Makers which includes: Head of departments, Council board ORGANISATION The study is presented in five chapters as follows: Chapter one Introduction Chapter Two Literature Review Chapter Three theoretical framework Chapter Four Methodology Chapter Five Conclusions and Recommendations . CHAPTER 2 Literature review Review of existing knowledge on the subject of the research will help in guiding the current research work. To start with, change management (under certain and uncertain environment) review the two the approach to change which are (1) Determinism Approach (2) voluntarism approach. The exiting knowledge on resistances to change would also be reviewed in this section of the study. CHANGE Organisation can be described as a group of people brought together for the purpose achieving certain objectives. As the basic unit of an organisation is the role rather than the person in it the organisation is maintained in existence, sometimes over a long period of time, despite many changes of members. Statt, (1992, p.102).in this defined the important point there is people interacting in order to order to achieve some defined goal. Organisation can also be defined as systems comprising elements of formal organisational management and operations as well as elements of more informal aspects of organisational life. The organisational systems, themselves, are conceptualised as operating in three types of environments. These are the temporal, external and internal environmental whose elements interact with each other to form the triggers of change which are significant in bringing about organisational changes. Stephen P .robbins and Timothy A. judge (2009 ) Change is inevitable in an organisation, that is usually very difficult to implement and it takes a miracles if it occurs successfully because people will always resist it. According to Kotter (1996:3) states that Although some people predict that most of the reengineering, restrategizing, mergers, downsizing and cultural renewal project will soon disappear, due to the fact that many Marco economic forces are at work and this forces may grow stronger in the future .As a result many organisations are pushing to reduce costs, improving their product and service quality, find new prospects for growth and increase growth. This caused many organisations to effect major changes in other adapt to the shifting conditions in their business environment. These changes help the competitive standing of organisations and have position them for a better future. In many situations the improvements have been disappointing, which have resulted to waste of resources and frustrated employees. To some de gree the consequence of change is inevitable. Whenever people are forced to adjust to shifting conditions, it is generally very painful. Organisational change is an ongoing process that is characterised by fine tuning of the fit or match between the organisations strategy, structure, people, and processes. Such efforts are usually manifested at the departmental and divisional levels. Change management is perceived as a set of processes that is used to ensure that considerable changes are executed in an orderly, controlled and systematic approach to achieve organisational change. One of the objectives of change management is the human aspects of overcoming resistance to change in order for organisational employees to buy into change and achieve the organisations goal of an orderly and effective transformation .Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) start that most major organisations need to undertake moderate changes once a year and major changes every four or five years. Inefficient organisational processes, problems with coordination and lack of cooperation are examples of causes for change that happen within an organisation. Changes does not always have an external start point, it can also originate from an internal source. According to Taiwo (2001:24) defines change as the process of analyzing the past to elicit the present actions required for the future. It involves moving from a state, to a future desired state. A change process starts with the awareness of the need for change. One can not understand an organisation without trying to change it. Change helps us to understand an organisation better. Approaches to the Study of Change The study of change has two approaches which are as follow: Determinism approach Voluntarism Approach Determinism approach: This is an approach by Wilson.1992 with the belief that the operations of organisation are influenced by largely by external forces namely economic situation, the environment and the context in which they operate. Change is been caused by external forces which are beyond the control of mangers or change agents. Wilson.1992 view that an organisation as a system operates in an environment and it is operation can be influence by the environment. However Burns (2000) criticise this approach as been over-fatalistic that mangers would only act as a result of external forces after event have taken place. Voluntarism Approach: This approach is based in the assumption that the result of change process is based on the ability of the manager or changer agent to use a choice strategy to determine the outcome of a change process that is the strategic choice implemented can promote or undermine organisational effectiveness. This model will rely on the skill of the manger ability and confidence to achieve the necessary course of change required in the organisation. This process requires that will identify the type of change the organisation needs. By knowing this it would help to determine the method to use in effecting the necessary changes and the areas to change. You can not fully understand a system until you try to change it. This perspective is shown in the figure 1 below. Identify type of change Incremental change Discontinuous change How to Change Set goals to be attained Diagnose what to change igiide Diagnose what to change How to Change Set goals to be attained Diagnose what to change Figure 1: the process of the voluntarism approach as developed by Nadler and tushman Kurt Lwein argued that for organisational change to be successful it most pass through three steps which 1. Unfreezeing or unlocking from the existing level of behaviour: this a also know as status quo changing to overcome the pressure of both individual resistance and group conformity. This knows as the equilibrium state. The unfreezing is necessary because it helps us determine the Driving force, which direct behaviour away from the status quo can be increased and also the Restraining forces, which hinder movement from the existing equilibrium, can be decrease 2. Change or move to a new level : this a change process that transforms the organisation from the status quo to a desired end state, it involves moving from the equilibrium state to overcome the pressure of the both individual resistance and group resistance 3.Refreeze behaviour at the new level: this combine the two approaches . organisations who have succeed in the past are likely to encounter restraining forces if the management want to bring changes in the organisational process similarly ,that organisation with strong culture excel at incremental changes but are overcome by restraining forces against radical changes P.G Audia, E.A Locke and K.G.Smith,( October 2000),p.837-853. This can be illustrated below in figure 2 Force Affecting Changes: From studies there are two types forces that affects change, internal and external (Kreitner, Kinicki p 562) INTERNAL FORCES: This normally occur When people that have been through difficult ,painful and not very successful change efforts often end up been pessimistic and angry conclusions. This usually result to them be suspicious of the motives of those pushing for transformation in the organisation they worry that major change is not possible ,without having a negative impart on them. They usually normally fear that their boss or the management is incompetent. This type of force within an organisation can be described as INTERNAL forces resisting change. Internal forces for change are operative from inside the organization. They are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Human resource factors. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Managerial behavior/decisions (B) EXTERNAL FORCES. With the trend of globalization, organisations are now encountering challenges in different face. A globalized economy is creating both hazards and more opportunities for every body, which is now forcing organisations, to make sudden change in their processes not only to compete and prosper but also to survive in their industry. Globalization itself is driven by a set powerful forces associated with the following (1)Demographic characteristic (2)technological development (3) market changes (4) Social and political pressure Resistance to change Resistance is seen as a defensive mechanism use by employees to resist change in an organisation which they assume the change would move them from their comfort zone. A major barrier to change is resistance of the people of the organisation .Resistance to change happens when people perceives that the change would take something very valuable from them, this type of reaction is usually been considered as a standard or natural reaction to organisational change. It is not only people that resist change , organisations also resist change they perceives change as a threat to their comfort zone for example an organisational plan or a change in a product line in an organisation maybe considered as a threat among employees which will raised debate , downsizing because of the proposed change . Resistance can be overt, implicit, and immediate. It is easiest for management to deal with resistance when it is overt and immediate. For example if a change is proposed and employees quickly response by complaining , treating to go on strike or engaged in work showdown all this can easily managed by the management by engaging the employees in a dialogue to resolve such issues. in the case of an implicit resistance effort are more subtle to result to loss of loyalty to the organisation , loss of motivation to work , increase in error and mistakes , increase in absenteeism due to sickness and this is more difficult to understand or recognise. In some cases resistance do not normally surface, in a change process is may appear to be minimal reaction at the start but after a week, month, or even years later. Reaction to change can build up and then explode out of proportion in responses to any change action that follows thereafter. According to Golstein(1998) and maurer(1996) resistance to change arise just because management fall to implement reward schemes, training and development , industrial relation and other board human resource processes that will reinforce the change process and assist individuals in accepting it as their own. Inline with this perspective, organisational change will not be successful unless it is owned by the senior management of the organisation. In summary a major force for the resistance to change can be classified into human and organisational sources. Individual source in more off characteristics such as perceptions, personalities and needs while that of organisation is more of the structural makeup of the organisation .Change and resistance go hand in hand: change implies resistance and resistance means that change is taking place. One of the assignments of top mangers and change mangers is to overcome resistance to change of both middle level mangers and employees. Therefore I propose a different view on resistance. The Organisational Culture Organisational culture can be refers to as to be the values and pattern of belief and behaviour that are accepted and practiced by the members of a particular organization( C.D Pringle, D.F .Jennings, and J.G. Longenecker) ,p.594 because each organisation have its own unique cultural which they have develop over time .even organisations in the same industry exhibit distinctly different ways of operating this is further explained in the paragraph below Organisational culture can either facilitate or hinder an organisational strategic action. Organisational culture reflects in the values and beliefs of the process and operations of the organisation. The purpose of organisational culture is to help firm to adapt to environmental changes and to coordinate and integrate its internal operations.(E.H Schein)1985 p.9 .For many organisations the first and major influence upon the culture is their founder, his or her foundational assumptions about success form the foundation of the organisational culture. For example the culture of McDonalds fast food was fast service first which was embedded by the founder Ray A. Kroc, who died in 1984.tildate this it still the cultural of McDonalds fast food. Yukl .P.215-216 points out, that the set of belief about a distinctive competence of the organisation is one of the important elements that make the organisational culture, which makes it different from other organisations. This belief will direct and reflect on the organisational goal and operations. For example an organisation that holds is success to innovation will response quickly to a drop in sale of new product that was introduce to the market. This type of an organisation will offer a common product at a lower price but response to any attempts to lower the cost further . This type of culture normal prevents organisations from adapting successfully to environmental change due to the ever changing need of customers. The needs of consumers are increasing as well as the environment is changing. Example people use more healthy product and environmental friendly products this day. This have cause the culture of organisations to change. In general, we can say that the foundation of an organisations culture reflects the values and beliefs of the founder. But with time the culture is modified as the environment changes. Environmental and societies change render some of the elements of the organisational culture obsolete and even dysfunctional. New elements must be included in the organisational culture and old obsolete elements be discarded for organisations to maintain their success. As seen in figure 3. Influence of a transformational leader Beliefs, values, and assumptions of the founder Adaptation to environmental change over time Current Organisational Culture Evolution of organisational culture Figure 3 the evolution of organisational culture by K.Kerwin and N.Fins Definition of culture: Many people think of culture as national culture which incorporates the idiosyncrasies of a certain race or tribe of people, traditions and methods which have been from generation to generation. Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1985) Culture is defined more broadly than just national culture, although national culture can not remove from the definition, a fact that will become evident. Culture consists of a group of group of people and contains the values that are significant to the group, be it consciously or otherwise. One clarification that national culture can develop for certain values the importance to this study, but the fact that it is part of national culture is incidental. However there is a common problem faced by all the theorists researching culture, that it is exceptionally difficult, if not impossible, to precisely define what organizational culture is. Both Schein (1992:12) and Brown (1998:12) define culture thus: [Culture is] A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. Schein (1992: 12). Organisational culture refers to the pattern of beliefs, values and learned ways of coping with experience that have developed during the course of an organisations history and which, tends to be manifested in its material arrangements and in the behaviour of its members. Brown (1998: 12). Hofstede (1985:347:357) has defined culture as being the collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one group or category from another. For the purpose of this study, the definition of Schein and Brown will be adopted. Corporate Culture Culture can be defined not only at the national level but also at the organisational level. This concept is known as corporate culture. The culture of an organisation defines appropriate behaviour, bond and motivates individuals and asserts solutions where there is ambiguity. It governs the way a company processes information, its internal relations and its values (Hampden-Turner C., 1990, p11) Models of Corporate Culture There are a whole host of approaches that seek to identify and qualify an organisations culture. In the main, there are two approaches that theorists use to model or explain organisational culture. These are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Qualitative observational analysis, ethnographical study. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Quantitative analysis, phenomenological study. Schein (1992:17) also recognises that there are different layers of an organisations culture, which are illustrated in the Figure 4 below. ARTEFACTS Visible organisational structures and processes (hard to decipher) ESPOUSED VALUES Strategies, goals, philosophies (espoused justification) BASIC UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS Unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts and feelings (ultimate source of values and action) Figure 4: Schein (1992: 17) Layers of Culture This type of assessment is a valid approach, but it does not arrive at an overall view of the observed culture and merely provides observations of specific attributes of a culture. Johnson Scholes (1999:73) make use of similar areas for observation and take it a stage further. They place these observations in context with the physical manifestation of the organisational culture to define what they call The Paradigm of an organisation. The tool they use for this is referred to as a Cultural Web. The Cultural Web is a representation of the taken-for-granted assumptions, or paradigm, of an organisation and the physical manifestation of organisational culture. Johnson Scholes (1999: 73). The Cultural Web takes the ideas of Schein (1992:17) and Hofstede (1985:344-357) and merges them into an amorphous collection of cultural indicators that help the organisation understand its complete self. It would therefore be a mistake to conceive of the paradigm as merely a set of beliefs and assumptions removed from organisational action. They lie within a Cultural Web which bonds them to the day-to-day action of organisational life. Johnson Scholes (1993: 61). Symbols Power Structures Organisa-tional structure Routines and rituals Stories The paradigm Control Systems Figure 5: Johnson Scholes (1993: 61) Cultural Web Organizational culture can be defined as the composition consists of opinions, values, attitudes and behaviours models that are useful to describe the character of the organisation members. This system, which can be found in the organization, guides people `s attitudes. Organizational culture can also be is a set of operating principles that determine how people behave in society. This form base of observable behaviour of people beliefs, values and assumptions that govern their activities. Organizational Behaviour (Barhate Mangesh 2009, p 20) Organizational culture is an essential set of beliefs, perceptions, thoughts and emotions that each member of a group takes for granted (Schein, 1992). These assumptions have become so deeply imbedded in the psyche of a culture that incongruent cultural behavior is unthinkable. The premise is difficult to change, because they are not confronted or debated (Schein, 1992). Perceptions Human beings have the ability to construct perceptions. Perceptions can be seen as selective processes, since human beings do not passively record every detail of the world presented to their senses. Selection is accomplished by active engagement with the environment and the perceiver constructs it in the most suitable informative manner. (M.Sullivan 2000.p.45) Furthermore, it steers the perceiver towards what is relevant and important for the present purpose. Reality can be seen as too complex to be known completely and categorisation can help since it assures us that we know what we need to know (Ekenvall et al 2000:13-14). Cultural Change Approaches Ranson (2001:25-26) believes that change can be planned and implemented by focusing on changing individuals and their behaviour. He proposes a three-stage process: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Unfreezing the current paradigm. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Introduce change and move the culture. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Refreeze into the new paradigm Aside from the aforementioned, two major approaches to changing an organisation culture have been identified: the top down and the bottom up (Thornhill, Lewis et al., 2000:98-102).In the top down, which is sometimes referred to as the culture engineering approach (Palmer Handy 2000:37-46), it is assumed that the management and in particular the top management of an organisation has full knowledge of the desired values, norms and the behaviour expected of all organisational members to achieve success. The success stories at British Airways and other organizations are typical examples of the top down approach. Despite the reported achievements, this approach has been questioned and criticized for being strong in rhetoric but weak in practice (Watson 1996:323-342). In contrast, the bottom up approach attempts to bring about culture change in a participative and interactive manner. Under this approach, one or few pilot units or sections become the focal point for culture change. The lessons learned in the pilot units, which eventually become role models, are used to spread the desired changes to other parts of the organization. The bottom top approach provides greater opportunities for employee involvement in culture change. This approach brings about unified teams and commitment because of regular meetings between staff and management, working across teams rather than functional silos and sharing information and knowledge across all groups. According to Peter Drucker,(2008) One of the main tasks of management should be in making people capable of joint performance, to make their weaknesses irrelevant. This will create harmony in working together, equilibrium in thoughts and actions, goals and achievements, plans and performance, products and clients. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In this chapter I would relate the force field theories in an in depth study to the problem of accepting the PACE project ,which would help in finding the driving forces and the resist forces to change and would help determine how the preferred PACE project . However as mentioned in the various literatures, for the management of an organisation which is reacting to, or planning to change will be faced with forces acting to facilitate the change and forces acting against it. Thus this force are important for any type of changes, they form the frame work for transformational change.

Essay on The Yellow Wallpaper, A Rose for Emily and Babylon :: Yellow Wallpaper essays

The Yellow Wallpaper, A Rose for Emily and Babylon It is amazing how differently people see the world. People from different walks of life interpret everyday experiences in different ways. This is ever so apparent when discussing the gaps that occur in stories by great authors. In The Yellow Wallpaper, a woman is being "treated" by a doctor (her husband) for a condition he refers to as anxiety. She is placed in a room, apparently one that was previously inhabited by a mental patient, and told to rest. Over the course of a few weeks the woman begins to exhibit signs of paranoia and regularly has hallucinations. Through the course of the story, the woman continuously makes reference to the yellow wallpaper. The first, and possibly the greatest, gap in the story comes when interpreting the meaning(s) behind the wallpaper. Does the color yellow infer something about insanity? The woman repeatedly refers to the patterns that the peeling wallpaper makes. Do the patterns suggest order from chaos? It is apparent, from the number of times that it is mentioned, that the wallpaper plays a role in the mental changes the woman experiences (and details her changes) throughout the story. Part way through the story, she begins seeing a woman moving behind the wallpaper, as if trying to escape it. Is she actually seeing herself in the wallpaper, as suggested by Chris Tildon, or is the hallucination what she fears she is becoming? At the end of the story, she takes on the role of the "creeping" woman and follows a smudge around the room and over her fainted husband. This supports the idea that she is the woman that has been trapped in the paper. Maybe she feels trapped and tormented by John's lack of sympathy for her condition. Another story that benefits from gaps is Babylon Revisited by F. Scott Fitzgerald. The gaps in this story are numerous, but the most important gaps involve Charlie's previous bout with Alcoholism, and his struggle to retrieve his daughter Honoria. Charlie claims to be a reformed man. However, after reading deep into the story, it is apparent that Charlie plays a role in his own downfall. Does Charlie actually try to rid himself of his past, or is he actually perpetuating it? In the story, Charlie visits his old "haunts", maintains a "one drink a day" attitude, and inadvertently brushes elbows with a couple of old drinking buddies.